Intellectual Freedom, Censorship and the Schools:

Introduction: Intellectual Freedom, Libraries and the Schools

The cultivation of a climate of critical thinking and free expression 
is one of the most cherished hallmarks of the modern democratic society.  
Considered by many to be an essential requisite for all other freedoms, 
intellectual freedom is understood to be the right of all individuals to 
formulate and articulate their own understanding of the character of the 
world and of society, and to have unrestricted access to the information 
necessary to develop this understanding.  This principle, while easy to 
affirm and to articulate, becomes very difficult to define in practice.  
Free expression can easily turn into license, while adjudicating the 
boundaries of what constitutes sufficient access runs immediately into 
questions of privacy, state security, and developmental propriety.  So even 
though enshrined in the American system by the affirmation of the right 
of free speech articulated in the First Amendment, the principle of 
intellectual freedom and its antithesis, censorship, have proven to be 
lightning rods for some of the more virulent values conflicts in American 
society today.
  
Librarians find themselves caught up in the debates over intellectual 
freedom because of their role in materials selection and because they act 
as guardians of the record of public knowledge.  The library functions as a 
unique public forum that has the obligation to make information 
accessible to everyone, regardless of viewpoint.  The problem is that due 
to the breadth of the mandate, libraries also make available information 
that has the potential to offend or that can be considered dangerous to 
public safety.  As a consequence librarians are held responsible for 
providing access to these "questionable" materials and can become liable 
when the materials are challenged.  The issue of censorship and 
intellectual freedom is a crucial one for anyone in the library field and it 
is important for librarians to understand the dynamics of the conflicts so 
that they can act informedly and responsibly in situations that are 
frequently charged with high emotion and confrontational or polemical 
energy.
   
The definition of intellectual freedom takes on a special significance 
when it is considered within the context of the American public school 
system.  As one of the primary mechanisms for socializing children and 
for forging a sense of cultural unity the public schools have recently 
become a battleground in the struggle to define the core values of 
American society.  On the one side is the tradition that gives to teachers 
and librarians the responsibility to inculcate in the students (to the best 
of their ability) an understanding of the complexity of humans systems 
and human interactions and to provide an environment in which critical 
thinking and effective problem solving skills (both moral and practical) 
can be effectively developed.  On the other side are those who feel that 
parents and society at large have a legitimate right to be assured that the 
content of what is taught in the schools or of what is available in school 
libraries does not abrogate in any substantive way their personal values 
or community mores.  In the abstract these two positions are not 
necessarily opposed to each other, but in the current context the vision of 
the "good society" held by proponents of each side is a radically different 
one and the tension between these two needs at times has verged on a 
battle for control of the schools.
  
The issue of intellectual freedom in the schools has taken on a 
critical importance since it is here that society's practical response to 
this fundamental value conflict is being worked out.  As these readings 
make clear, the process is an on-going one and the forces on both sides 
can marshal considerable resources.  One hopes that in the struggle to 
make a principle victorious that the inner spirit of that principle does not 
become distorted.  If the affirmation of intellectual freedom is a valid 
posture, it can only  truly triumph in a context of open dialog.  Similarly, 
the attempt to impose a vision of community mores on the schools that 
does not reflect a critically examined consensus undermines, in the long 
run, the very values that are purportedly being affirmed.  The real 
challenge is to keep the forum open and trust that an informed dialog will 
result in a consensus that encourages critical thinking while providing the 
foundation for moral thinking and action that is so essential for the 
common good.

Scope of the Bibliography

The following bibliography has been collected in an attempt to 
provide a concise guide to the most recent literature discussing the issue 
of intellectual freedom.  Due to the breadth of the topic, it was decided to 
focus on works investigating intellectual freedom as a general principle 
and on works examining the impact of censorship controversies on schools 
and libraries.  Left out of this selection were books dealing with the 
related issues of freedom of the press, the problem of pornography, 
censorship issues in film and the broadcast media, and the controversies 
surrounding funding for the arts.  Also not covered is the growing problem 
of defining the boundaries of freedom of expression on the internet and in 
other electronic media.  Each of these areas of controversy, while related 
to the works discussed below, possesses its own (voluminous) literature 
and deserves to be treated in a separate discussion.  Furthermore, since 
the literature prior to 1989 has been surveyed in several substantial 
bibliographies--e.g. Frank Hoffman, Intellectual Freedom and Censorship: 
An Annotated Bibliography, (Metuchen, N.J.:  Scarecrow Press, 1989); and 
James R. Bennett, Control of Information in the United States: An 
Annotated Bibliography, (Westport, Connecticut: Meckler, 1987)-- it was 
decided to focus on works produced since that date in the hopes that a 
survey of the most recent literature would provide a useful addendum to 
the prior surveys.

Selection of works was made using standard finding aids in the 
University of New Mexico's Zimmerman Library, and in the Albuquerque 
Public Library.  The intent was to locate scholarly and popular sources 
that would be readily available in most locales.  Book reviews were 
located using the "Expanded Academic Index" accessible through the 
"Libros" interface of Zimmerman Library.




Intellectual Freedom and Censorship
An Annotated Bibliography


1.  Collections of Readings/Overviews, aimed at a 
popular audience.

George Beahm and Mary Beahm, editors.
War of Words: The Censorship Debate, (Kansas City:  Andrews 
and McMeel, 1993).  430 pages, bibliography.

War of Words is filled with a wealth of source material covering the 
issue of censorship in American society.  The editors have collected 
essays, interviews and media reports on a broad range of topics, 
including:   challenges to books,  controversies over art, censorship 
challenges in the schools, issues over depictions of sexuality and 
pornography.  While the intent of the editors is clearly to promote an 
understanding of the dangers inherent in the growing number of 
challenges to the free circulation of of ideas, they have also done an 
excellent job of providing a range of voices from a number of 
different perspectives. The book contains numerous essays and 
statements by conservative journalists and activists with the result 
that the language used on both sides of the debate is open for 
inspection.  

The varied character of the content of this book makes it an excellent 
resource for obtaining a first hand impression of the diversity of 
opinions that the question of intellectual freedom raises.  The book's 
bibliography is a good guide to some of the most pertinent and recent 
literature on the subject.



Nat Hentoff.
Free Speech for Me--But not for Thee: How the American Left 
and Right Relentlessly Censor Each Other.  (New York: Harper 
Collins, 1992).

In this challenging and provocative book, Nat Hentoff explores the 
intricate moral dilemmas raised by the advocacy of intellectual 
freedom.  A journalist who contributes frequently to the Village 
voice, the Washington Post and the New Yorker, Hentoff marshals an 
impressive number of episodes that illustrate the persistence of 
efforts to limit and control what people in this country read and 
think.  He treats the major themes that provoke restrictions on 
freedom of expression: racism, sexual stereotyping, obscenity and 
pornography, national security, and issues regarding freedom of 
expression in public schools.  

Written mostly in the first person, the book has a conversational tone 
that make the ideas expressed very accessible.  Some readers may 
encounter difficulties with Hentoff's point of view, however.  His 
main concern seems to be to ensure that the principles of intellectual 
freedom are applied consistently regardless of the content of the 
ideas expressed.  As such he spends most of the space of the book 
(390 pages) discussing censorship efforts that originated from people 
with liberal leanings or ideologies.  His point being that censorship is 
not limited to specific political, religious, or geographical groups but 
crops up in all facets of modern life.  He speaks with the voice of the 
curmudgeon:   observant of the deeper implications of people's 
actions, sure of his own interpretation, and cranky to all.  While 
opinionated, he raises essential questions in this debate and 
articulates a point of view that needs to be heard.

 This book is a goldmine of anecdotal information about the on-going 
conflict over censorship in the United States and is a good choice for 
obtaining a complex overview of the subject.  

Reviews:
Chris Petrakos, The Quill, May, 1994, 83:4, p. 42.
Positive review, praises Hentoff's emphasis on promoting dialog 
as the best solution to the values conflicts underlying the 
censorship issue.



Nicholas J. Karolides, Lee Burress, John M. Kean, editors.
Censored Books: Critical Viewpoints. (Metuchen, N.J. :  
Scarecrow Press, 1993).

This collection of essays is intended to "stir the reader to take a 
deeper look at the question of intellectual freedom" and is motivated 
by the need to keep the "constitutional guarantees of separation of 
church and state, freedom of speech and of the press, [and of] the 
right to congregate to exchange ideas" alive in each generation.  In its 
first section, the book presents essays by novelists discussing their 
personal experiences with and interpretations of censorship--
touching on the problem of pressures to self-censor as well as the 
problem of overt suppression.  The second section contains essays 
defending the literary value and the social and ethical import of 
specific challenged books.  Among the books discussed are: 
Huckleberry Finn, Brave New World, Catch-22, The Color Purple, Death 
of a Salesman  and The Grapes of Wrath.

The book has the virtue of bringing together a varied spectrum of 
voices  focused on the importance of specific stories that in the event 
of a successful censorship challenge would become inaccessible. 
Moreover, the structure of the book is delightfully consistent with the 
principles of intellectual freedom in that it does not present a 
univocal declamation of  moral rectitude but provides a multi-voiced 
discussion in which a valuing of the spirit of intellectual inquiry 
remains the paramount message.  The book also has significant 
practical value in that the essays can help to define a rationale for 
defending books that have been challenged.



Robert Emmet Long, editor.
Censorship.  (New York:  H.W. Wilson, 1990).  The Reference 
Shelf v. 62 no 3.

The book is an anthology of reprints of articles organized around the 
themes of Censorship in Great Britain, pornography, censorship of 
books in libraries and schools, and censorship of the fine arts.  It is a 
small paperback and condenses an overview of a complex topic into an 
accessible and affordable volume.  While not the best selection of its 
kind, it is a good "reader" providing accessible introductory material 
for classroom discussion.


William Noble
Bookbanning in America: Who Bans Books? -- and Why. 
(Middlebury: Paul S. Eriksson, 1990).  349 pages, index, 
bibliography.

In this anecdotal and frequently gripping book, William Noble paints a 
vivid portrait of the personalities, issues and dynamics involved in 
the process of challenging and defending access to books.  While never 
articulating a systematic argument, his narratives describing many of 
the most notable efforts to ban books over the course of American 
history, translate into a ringing defense of the necessity and 
importance of maintaining the principle of intellectual freedom as a 
vibrant and dynamic aspect of our political and cultural life.  Noble's 
style is always engaging and he has a keen ability to present 
historical conflicts over books as episodes filled with drama and 
moral import.  But while this novelistic quality is perhaps the book's 
greatest strength, it also points to its weakness:  in his quest for the 
story, the personalities Noble portrays frequently are characterized 
in terms of easily recognizable literary characters: the reader always 
knows who are the "good guys" and the "bad guys."  This technique 
tends to over-simplify complex situations and glosses over some of 
the ethical and moral difficulties raised by the issue of censorship.  
Given this caveat, this book is a "good read" and provides an 
accessible introduction to the issue of bookbanning to readers of all 
levels. 

Reviews: 
Joseph D. McInerney, The American Biology Teacher, November-
December 1994, 56:8, pp. 502-3.


Ann E. Weiss
Who's To Know: Information, the Media, and Public Awareness, 
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990). 182 pages, index, bibliography.

Who's to Know is a concise and clear exposition of the main issues 
surrounding intellectual freedom, censorship and the impact of the 
media on the shape and character of public information.   Weiss's text 
is a simple and direct presentation of a complex topic aimed at young 
readers (high school age).  But her coverage of the issues is nuanced 
and challenging even for an adult audience.  She incorporates 
considerable historical material into her description and does an 
excellent job of elucidating the impact of the attitudes of the past on 
the patterns of the present.  This book is recommended reading for any 
young person exploring the limits placed on freedom of expression in 
American society and provides a concise overview of this issue for 
adult readers as well.  The one disappointment of the book is its 
mediocre bibliography, which is more of a "sources used" style than a 
well-organized annotated list of sources for additional information.

Reviews:
Frances Bradburn, Wilson Library Bulletin, November 1990, 65:3, p. 
155.
Positive review.


2.  Resource Books

Herbert N. Foerstel
Banned in the U.S.A.:  A Reference Guide to Book Censorship in 
Schools and Public Libraries, (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood 
Press, 1994).  231 pages, index, bibliography.

Banned in the U.S.A. is one of the most comprehensive compendiums of 
material illustrating the increasing number and severity of challenges 
to the free use and circulation of books in American schools.  While 
other books do a good job of summarizing the challenges to 
intellectual freedom in all of its complexity, Banned in the U.S.A by 
focusing on the issue of bookbanning provides a concise overview of 
this fundamental challenge to the cultivation of the concept of 
freedom of expression in the schools.  Foerstel surveys the major 
bookbanning incidents that have shaped the character of the current 
debate and examines the key legal cases that form the legal context 
within which the debate gets played out.  He also includes an 
excellent chapter "Voices of Banned Authors," in which he profiles 
several authors of the most frequently challenged books, allows them 
to describe what their intentions are for their writing as well as 
their response to their work being challenged, and conveys the human 
side of the censorship controversies.  

In the final chapter Foerstel profiles over two dozen books that have 
received frequent challenges.  He provides an abstract of the book and 
describes the reasons for it being challenged.  This section in and of 
itself is a valuable resource since it provides a quick overview of the 
character of the book and of the nature of its challenge--illuminating 
something of the climate that envelopes a book once its been 
challenged.  Overall, Banned in the U.S.A. is an excellent resource that 
provides insight into several different dimensions of the bookbanning 
controversy.

Reviews: 

Bonnie Ericson, "The Censorship Crisis," English Journal, 85:1, January 
1996, pp. 79-81.
Positive review.  Singles out the sections focusing on 
interviews with authors and the descriptions of challenged 
books as the most important contribution of the book.  The 
review also discusses Censorship: A Threat to Reading, Learning, 
and Thinking, and What Johnny Shouldn't Read. 


Jonathan Green
The Encyclopedia of Censorship, (New York: Facts on File,  
1990).  388 pages, index, bibliography

As the title implies, this is a compendium of information on the topic 
of censorship arranged in a standard alphabetical format.  While an 
interesting idea, the volume falls short on a number of counts and has 
only a limited use.  The introduction provides a concise essay on the 
meaning, scope and significance of censorship and makes the point of 
the universality of the phenomenon--even in the west where it has 
taken on a more covert and less official form.  While a random perusal 
of various articles in the volume suggests that the information in the 
Encyclopedia is well written and useful, I was unable to locate 
several other topics at all.  Such subjects as Huckleberry Finn, Robert 
Mapplethorpe, or Kurt Vonnegut are not covered, and a search for 
"Pico" in the index failed to produce a cross reference to "Board of 
Education v. Pico (1982)--that article was found in the process of 
browsing.  In general it appears that the encyclopedia is strongest on 
subjects  possessed of an historical content, but that it is not a good 
source for information on more recent or specific cases.

Reviews:

James Rettig, Wilson Library Bulletin, March 1990, 64:7, pp. 126-7.
Points to the lack of information on anti-censorship groups (e.g. 
American Library Association and Freedom to Read Foundation); 
calls the volume a "flawed first effort," but a "useful reference 
work."

William A. Donovan, Library Journal, December 1989, 114:20, pp. 106-
7.
Notes some lacunae in the articles, but generally positive about 
the volume.



Information Freedom and Censorship: World Report 1991/Article 
19 (Chicago: American Library Association, 1991).  471 pages, 
index, bibliography.

Given its international scope, Information Freedom and Censorship is 
somewhat tangential to the subject of this bibliography.  But this 
volume illuminates, in a way no other work in this list can, the global 
context of the censorship issue.  Sandwiched between articles on 
Paraguay and Uruguay the situation in the United States is graphically 
shown to be only one aspect of a much larger--and frequently more 
serious--pattern of abuse.  Article 19, which takes its name from the 
nineteenth article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is an 
organization dedicated to promoting freedom of expression and to 
combatting censorship worldwide.  This volume provides a concise 
reference for information conditions all over the globe.  While 
comprehensive in its coverage, the individual articles are necessarily 
brief and do not provide in depth information.  Also, some of the 
information has already become dated.  Nevertheless, for a quick 
overview of the key censorship issues facing any country today, this 
book would be a good starting point.  

Reviews:

John Swan, Library Journal, October 1991, 116:1, p. 146.
Positive review; says the book belongs in every library along 
with the Amnesty International Report and the State Department 
Country Report.


Newsletter on Intellectual Freedom, (Chicago:  International 
Freedom Committee of the American Library Association,1952- )

The Newsletter is unquestionably one of the most important sources 
for timely information regarding intellectual freedom and the issue of 
censorship.  Published by the Committee on Intellectual Freedom of 
the American Library Association, the Newsletter tracks lawsuits, 
media reports, and issues and events that have an impact on the 
interpretation of the First Amendment.  As the official mouthpiece of 
the ALA Committee on Intellectual Freedom, it publishes the 
association's statements of policy regarding censorship issues.  In 
addition to its analysis of these issues, it also publishes a 
bibliography in each issue listing the most recent works discussing 
censorship.  This is an essential resource for anyone needing 
information about intellectual freedom or censorship.


John S. Simmons, editor.
Censorship: A Threat to Reading, Learning, and Thinking, 
(Newark, Delaware :  International Reading Association, 1994). 
279 pages.

Note: I was unable to physically locate a copy of this book, but the 
following information is summarized from Ericson's "The Censorship 
Crisis," in English Journal, 85:1, January 1996, pp. 79-81.

In Censorship, Simmons brings together a fertile and useful selection 
of material covering the censorship issue.  The book's three sections 
discuss the general question of censorship, survey several book 
challenges, and provide a selection of practical information. 
Articulating an idea that is implicit in much of the literature covered 
in this bibliography but that has not received systematic attention, 
James Anthony Whitson defines the conflict over books as not so much 
a debate over content as a debate over methodology:  the groups 
challenging the books tend to "limit the notion of literacy to 
noncritical literacy."  Typically they insist on the need to teach basic 
mechanical skills (reading and writing) but eschew techniques 
designed to develop more critical skills.  Since the concept of critical 
exchange is so essential to the notion of intellectual freedom, this 
selection provides an important contribution to the literature on 
censorship. 




3.  Analytical Studies

Lee Burress
Battle of the Books: Literary Censorship in the Public Schools, 
1950-1985.  (Methuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1989).  
214 pages.

Note: I was unable to physically view a copy of this book, but it was 
frequently cited in the other literature I consulted.  The following 
information is based on a review by Norman Stevens in the Wilson 
Library Bulletin, October 1989.

In this book Burress examines the increase in censorship attempts in 
the public schools.  He recounts a specific challenge incident in 
Montello Wisconsin and then goes on to recount the results of various 
studies he has carried out--including a "lengthy 1982 national 
survey."  Burress' conclusion as recounted by Stevens is that "if we 
are to risk the dangers of censorship, we should be sure that evidence 
is shown to us that it is necessary." An important insight, but one 
suspects that the evidence Burress presents is of more significance 
than his specific summation of its significance.  If this book carries 
the same spirit as Censored Books: Critical Viewpoints, which was 
co-edited by Burress, Battle of the Books will be an important source 
for everyone concerned with the problem of book censorship.


Joan DelFattore
What Johnny Shouldn't Read: Textbook Censorship in America, 
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992). 209 pages, Index, 
sources listed for each chapter.

In this complex and important book Joan DelFattore examines the 
problem of textbook censorship as it was manifested in two trials in 
the 1980s: Mozert v. Hawkins County Public Schools, and Smith v. 
Board of School Commissioners of Mobile County.  Both cases were 
originated by conservative Christian parents in objection to reading 
material their children encountered in school.  The Mozert trial 
attempted to establish the right for all students to receive individual 
instruction in compliance with their religious beliefs.  The Smith 
trial attempted to demonstrate that secular humanism is a religion 
and so needs to be purged from textbooks to avoid the state's 
abrogating the establishment clause of the First Amendment.  While 
the two cases resulted in seemingly contradictory conclusions, 
DelFattore suggests that they affirmed the principle that, except in 
very extreme circumstances, the effective locus of power over what 
books are used in the classroom is the schoolboard.  

DelFattore then goes on to analyze the process by which textbooks are 
chosen, challenged and altered in California and Texas, the two states 
that, because of their size, effectively determine the content of 
textbooks nationwide.  She concludes that state boards of education 
are very vulnerable to political lobbying, and that as a consequence a 
small handful of vocal advocates have achieved a disproportionate 
influence over the content of textbooks.  By and large these protesters 
advocate a fundamentalist Christian agenda, although some protests 
from a liberal perspective have been successful as well.  She also 
points out that because of the economics of the process, publishers 
have responded to the controversies over teaching material by a 
process of self-censorship in which they attempt to avoid challenges 
by deleting or watering down controversial material--thus 
accentuating the influence of the protesters. 

 This is a highly detailed, effective and (to my mind) evenly balanced 
book.  DelFattore demonstrates convincingly the inability of the 
courts to effectively defend a rigorous interpretation of intellectual 
freedom--the legal status of textbook challenges reflects rather the 
muddled and inconclusive values of the range of opinions held by the 
American public.  Her identification of the boards of education as the 
true locus of power in the determination of what books actually are 
allowed to be taught provides a necessary clarification about the 
character of the textbook debate: the real challenge is not a legal one 
but a political one.  This book is important reading for anyone wanting 
a complex understanding of the character and extent of censorship in 
today's society.  


Reviews:
[note: the following reviews represent a somewhat random selection 
of the more than 11 reviews identified in the search]

Bonnie Ericson, "The Censorship Crisis," English Journal, January 
1996, 85:1, pp. 79-81.
Positive review; stresses DelFattore's presentation of a 
balanced view of the censorship controversies; calls the book an 
important source for educators wanting to "know more about the 
legal and publishing implications of censorship."

Sandra L. Wong, Contemporary Sociology, March 1994, 23:2, pp. 291-2.
Calls the book useful and recommends it, but challenges the 
clarity of  DelFattore's conclusions and suggests that other 
components of the textbook selection process not examined have 
more influence on decisions made by the Boards of Education.

Michael Tubridy, Wilson Library Bulletin, January 1993, 67:5, p. 98.
Likes the book;  would have wished to see more interviews to 
probe into the psychology of the parties involved, and finds 
DelFattore's balance of evidence uneven--needs more 
information on book challenges brought by liberal groups.

Nancy E. Zuwiyya, Library Journal, August 1992, 117:13, p 122.
Positive review; recommends the book for academic libraries.

Donna A. Demac
Liberty Denied:  The Current Rise of Censorship in America, 
(Rutgers: Rutgers University Press, 1990).  201 pages, index. 
Notes and "Selected Readings" at the end of each chapter.

In Liberty Denied, Donna Demac provides a well-researched and 
frequently hard-hitting survey of the varieties of challenges free 
expression faces in the United States.  Following the various themes 
of intellectual freedom (e.g.: textbook censorship; challenges to 
pornography; and corporate and governmental restrictions on 
individual expression, the media, and academic life) Demac concretely 
illustrates the character of the struggle to define the boundary 
between individual freedom and societal control.  A strong advocate 
of the idea that "the right of free speech is at the center of American 
liberty, and the exercise of that right is basic to American 
democracy," Demac's book emphasizes that this right is under siege 
and that as a society we need to become increasingly vigilant to 
ensure that it is not significantly undermined.  While Demac perhaps 
concentrates too much on the negative impact of the Reagan 
Administration and sounds a bit cataclysmic in her negative 
interpretation of recent trends, overall her argument is a sound one 
that contributes a significant synthesis of the scope and character of 
spirit of censorship in America today.

Reviews:
Felicia Helpert, The New York Times Book Review, October 16, 1988, 
p. 37.
The Progressive, August 1988, 52:8, p. 31.

4.  Theoretical Studies

Dianne McAfee Hopkins
Factors Influencing the Outcome of Challenges to Materials in 
Secondary School Libraries: Report of a National Study, (U.S. 
Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and 
Improvement, Library Programs:  August, 1991),  282 pages, 
Bibliography, apendicies.

In this book Dianne McAfee designed and conducted a study intended to 
identify the key variables influencing the retention or removal of 
secondary school library materials receiving a censorship challenge.  
In the report McAfee summarizes the key research examining the 
response of libraries and librarians to censorship challenges and then 
she describes the design and results of her study.  Using a two-tiered 
questionaire she first identified schools that had experienced library 
materials challenges. McAfee then sent a more comprehensive 
questionaire to the positive respondents.  This questionaire elicited 
information on six variables: 1) the district materials selection 
policy, 2) characteristics of the librarian, 3) school environment, 4) 
community environment, 5) initiator of the challenge, and 6) 
complaint background.  Factors found to be significant in influencing 
the retention of challenged materials  were: 1) the existence and use 
of a board approved materials selection policy, 2) internal and 
external support provided to the librarian during the challenge, 3) 
overall support for the retention of challenged materials, and 4) the 
form of complaint, with written complaints being more likely to 
result in retention than oral complaints.

McAfee's conclusions underline what might be considered common-
sense observations--e.g. that a librarian supported by the principal in 
a challenge process is more likely to succeed in having the material 
retained--but the study does not break any significant new ground in 
understanding the social or psychological dynamics confronting 
librarians involved in a censorship situation.  This book is worth 
consulting for its review of the research literature and for its 
quantitative support for  anecdotal observations made by more 
journalistically oriented observers of the materials challenge 
process.


Sue Curry Jansen
Censorship: The Knot that Binds Power and Knowledge, (New 
York, 1991).  282 pages, bibliography, index.

Censorship, The knot that Binds Power and Knowledge owes an 
unabashed debt to the first two persons of the Holy Trinity of post-
modern discourse--Marx and Nietzsche.  The argument of this book is 
predicated on the idea that knowledge and power are inextricably 
intertwined and that censorship provides the mechanism through 
which they interrelate.  The author argues that censorship is an 
inevitable feature of all societies, and denies the claim--identified 
with the Enlightenment and Liberal tradition--that it has been 
expurgated from modern democratic/industrial systems.  She 
indicates that  modern societies possess their own covert forms of 
"constitutive" censorship that maintain the status of their underlying 
power relationships.  She calls for the articulation of a more self-
critical stance by the citizens of the industrialized world so that an 
effective defense against authoritarian censorship can be 
constructed.

The book is divided into two sections.  The first examines illustrative 
situations demonstrating how censorship has functioned in the past 
and in the modern world.  She details the theoretical understanding of 
censorship from both a Liberal and a Marxist perspective and 
examines its function within both political systems.  In the second 
section she develops a theory to comprehend the power-knowledge-
censorship relationship and proposes a formal critical stance toward 
these structures as a way to mitigate their omnipotence.

Jansen's discussion of censorship is complex and intriguing.  She 
attempts a sophisticated theoretical exploration of the phenomenon, 
something that needs more exploration.  Her discussion is bound to 
irritate a number of people because of her characterization of modern 
western political systems in essentially exploitative terms.  She also 
tends to reduce the complexity of western society into neat strawmen 
that can be easily toppled.  Nevertheless, her argument bears a careful 
reading  because of the diverse (if radical) theoretical perspective 
she brings to the issue and because  her critiques highlight some of 
the most insidious threats to intellectual freedom.  

Reviews:

Phyllis Zangano, Journalism Quarterly, Summer, 1990, 67:2, p. 431.
Critical of Jansen's post-modern point of view, questions the 
validity of her rejection of the existence of a community 
morality, and finds her argument flawed.

Norman K. Denzin, The American Journal of Sociology, November, 
1989, 95:3, p. 813.
Calls this an important book that needs to be read by those who 
"intend to build a critical theory of meaning, censorship, and the 
media in this postmodern period of world history," but also 
finds it "frustrating,"  flawed and incomplete, and needing more 
foundation in the works of Derrida, Budrillard, Althusser, and 
Lacan. 


Frances Beck McDonald
Censorship and Intellectual Freedom: A Survey of School 
Librarian's Attitudes and Moral Reasoning, (Metuchen, N.J.: 
Scarecrow Press,1993).

A study examining high school librarians attitudes toward the 
principle of intellectual freedom and the attendant issue of 
censorship articulated by the "Library Bill of Rights"  (ALA) and the 
document "Access to Resources and Services in the School Library 
Media Program, An Interpretation of the Library Bill of Rights" (ALA).  
Examining a sample of school librarians from three midwestern 
states, the study looked at relationships between the acceptance of 
the principles of intellectual freedom and a rejection of censorship, 
relationships between various demographic variables and these 
principles, relationships between the acceptance of these principles 
and their translation into practice, and relationships between moral 
reasoning and these principles.

The book contains two excellent chapters that survey the literature 
on libraries and intellectual freedom and the literature on moral 
development.  The design of the  instrument used to conduct the 
survey is described in detail in chapters 4 through 6, while the 
findings are detailed in the following four chapters.  The book 
includes an excellent series of appendices that reproduce several key 
documents related to librarians and intellectual freedom, as well as 
copies of the two instruments around which the study is designed 
(Defining Issues Test and "Intellectual Freedom/Censorship Attitude 
Survey" .

McDonald's findings can be summarized as follows:
1) Librarians who agreed with the intellectual freedom principles 
also tended to agree with the need to apply the principles (i.e. 
rejected censorship in principle)
2) But while  advocacy of the principle of intellectual freedom was 
the norm, the study's measurement of the application of this principle 
pointed to a significant inconsistency: in practice Librarians bowed to 
pressures (implicit or explicit) to restrict access--either by not 
purchasing items or by targeting or limiting the acceptable audience 
for a given document--and effectively played the role of censor. 
3) level of education and size of school proved to be positively 
correlated to an affirmation of the principle of intellectual freedom
4) Librarians educated in ALA accredited schools also showed a higher 
incidence of affirmation of this principle
5) membership in professional organizations provided a positive 
correlation
6) A high score on the moral reasoning instrument was correlated, but 
only modestly, with the affirmation of the principle of intellectual 
freedom

This book is necessary reading for anyone contemplating statistical 
research into Librarian (or other professional) attitudes and practices 
toward censorship.  The technical language and the limitations of the 
scope of the study, however,  prevent the conclusions from being very 
profound. McDonald's reliance on the measurement of "moral 
development" is an intellectually unstable foundation for the study to 
possess considerable significance since the values assumptions 
embedded in the moral development research and in the instrument 
designed for this study raise numerous questions about the validity of 
the findings.  Despite these flaws, the study is an interesting attempt 
to quantify relationships between values and actual practice and 
deserves to be examined carefully.

Reviews:
Dolores Maminski, Library Journal, January,1994, 119:1, p. 178.
Summarizes McDonald's findings but makes no critical 
judgement of the work.


5.  Practical:  books intended primarily to inform 
action.

Dave Marsh
50 Ways to Fight Censorship, and Important Facts to Know about 
the Censors, (New York:  Thunder's Mouth Press, 1991).  
Foreword by George Plimpton.  128 pages, index.

Someone seeking to explore the moral complexities and cultural 
dichotomies implicit in the issue of censorship would not seek out 50 
Ways to Fight Censorship--nor for that matter would such a person 
write this book.   Rock critic Dave Marsh reduces a complex subject 
into aphoristic categories with the result that 50 Ways reads more 
like a manifesto than an effort to promote understanding.  Admittedly 
there is a place for this type of treatment of the subject and  Marsh 
does a good (and lively) job of suggesting how you can transform 
yourself from a passive observer into an active participant.  One of 
the best features of the book is its listing of pertinent addresses and 
resources, including:  addresses of the major networks, addresses of 
arts groups with experience in confronting censorship, and names and 
addresses of the most prominent groups working to restrict access to 
books.  Not for the faint of heart or the right of center, 50 Ways is a 
good resource for  free speech advocates who find themselves needing 
a pep talk before plunging into action.

Reviews:

Wilda Williams, Library Journal, July 1991, 116:12, p. 118.
Calls this book "essential for public libraries," but notes the 
lack of information on groups advocating political correctness, 
and cautions against Marsh's tone, which at times becomes 
"self-righteously hysterical."

Intellectual Freedom Manual, 4th ed., (Chicago:  Office for 
Intellectual Freedom of the American Library Association, 
1992).  283 pages, index, bibliography.

The Intellectual Freedom Manual is unquestionably one of the most 
important sources on censorship and intellectual freedom in print 
today.  Published by the Office for Intellectual Freedom of the 
American Library Association, it represents the official articulation 
of the stance of this organization on this issue.  It also reflects the 
considerable insight that the ALA's lengthy experience in wrestling 
with this issue has produced.  The first two sections of the book 
examine the ALA's policy statements "Library Bill of Rights" and the 
"Freedom to Read," analyzing in detail the history and interpretation 
of the various facets  and implications of these statements.  The next 
two sections, a selection of essays written by a variety of different 
scholars, explore the meaning and significance of the concept of 
intellectual freedom and its impact upon the legal interpretations of 
the First Amendment.  The final sections of the book detail practical 
measures people involved in censorship issues can take to help 
mitigate the impact of such actions.  

The material in the book is well organized and well written and 
provides a comprehensive overview of the conceptual and pragmatic 
character of intellectual freedom.  The editors express the hope that 
librarians "keep this book close at hand as a convenient reference 
work," and indeed it provides an essential starting place for any 
substantive inquiry into the issue of censorship.

Reviews:
Dolores Maminski, Library Journal, July 1992, 117:12, p. 133.
Calls it an "essential document" and says, "every librarian 
should become intimately familiar with the Intellectual 
Freedom Manual."

Henry Reichman
Censorship and Selection: Issues and Answers for Schools 
(Chicago: American Library Association, 1988).

This book provides a concise overview of the issues and problems 
involved with censorship in the schools while also outlining 
pragmatic steps and suggesting policy guidelines and procedures that 
can be taken to help schools, teachers and librarians deal effectively 
with the growing problem of challenges to textbooks.  Henry Reichman 
has been the Associate Editor of the _Newsletter on Intellectual 
Freedom_ and so has had considerable experience in analyzing and 
dealing with the issue of censorship. 

Reichman clearly and articulately defines the problem of censorship 
and describes its extent and increasing severity over the course of 
the last decade.  He identifies the major "arenas" in which the 
conflict over access to material takes place (school libraries, the 
classroom, and the student press)  and pinpoints the most potent 
issues that give rise to censorship attempts.  On the practical side, he 
emphasizes the importance of clear selection policies and sketches 
several scenarios in an effort to help teachers, librarians and 
administrators anticipate their response to a challenge. The book also 
contains several useful appendices.  These include documents 
pertinent to the definition of intellectual freedom, templates to help 
guide responses to a challenge, a summary of the most important 
legal cases, and a select annotated bibliography of literature on 
censorship from the past decade.

This book provides a good--and balanced-- introduction to this 
complex topic.  It is necessary reading for anyone who is likely to be 
involved in a censorship challenge in a school setting.

Reviews:
Norman Stevens, Wilson Library Bulletin, March 1989, 63:7, p. 100.
Norman Stevens, Wilson Library Bulletin, February, 1994, 68:6 p. 64.
Stevens reviewed this book in its original edition and in its 
revised edition.  Both times he found it to be a strong work, 
emphasizing in particular the introductory chapter, which he 
calls, "a landmark statement on issues of censorship in schools."

Robin Alinkofsky, Journal of Reading, December, 1989,  33:3, p. 236.
Found this to be a strong work, called it the "most 
comprehensive" book on its subject.