INTRODUCTION This bibliography has been put together to accompany a weekend seminar on mind/body dichotomy taught to graduate students in library and information science. Mind/body dichotomy, while at first seeming to have no relationship to this field, is actually of major importance, because of today's usage of artificial intelligence and expert systems in libraries and information professions. Information professionals are affected by technological developments in their daily work and should be contributing to future research and development. In order to do so, they must have an understanding of the theories underlying current attempts at developing expert systems and of the history leading up to today's applications. This bibliography will provide the means of gaining that knowledge. During the research for this project, I had the serendipitous experience of observing five presentations submitted by companies hoping to be selected as the vendor for the new client/server system about to be installed by the library in which I work. It clarified for me the importance of understanding where the information field is going with technology, and also whetted my curiosity to know where these applications had begun, what the theories behind them were. I was led all the way back to Descartes in my search. My first step upon being given this assignment was to consult with Hasker P. Davis, Ph.D., brain researcher and professor specializing in aging and memory at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs. The first person he recommended was Churchland, but he also suggested I look at Sperry and Penrose. All of these authors are included in this bibliography. As I began to look at the works by the aforementioned authors, I realized that I was going to have to go back to very early philosophy to fully represent these theories, as virtually every modern theorist of the mind, whether supportive or not, referred to the earliest thinkers. Descartes was a constant referral, so I began with him. Once I realized that it was with Descartes that the mind/body debate began, I was able to find my starting point. The other philosophers included in this bibliography were also frequently cited by modern theorists, so I investigated them as well. Only the most influential have been cited. The early debate seems to have started as a way of proving or disproving the existence of God, but then in the mid-twentieth century, it turned to the possibility of developing artificial intellligence (AI). Thus it was necessary to also investigate that field. Because of the plethora of information about AI, it was difficult to keep my research focused. Since the topic of my research is the mind/body dichotomy, I have narrowed my citations primarily to the philosophical questions behind AI, although there are a few which address its practical applications so that the student can see why he or she must understand the philosophy of AI. I felt that to ask library students to read and understand the works of major early philosophers would be unreasonable; therefore, with the exception of Descartes, I have chosen to recommend respected companion volumes (Cambridge, when possible) to these thinkers. Essays in these volumes are taken by known and respected scholars from around the world and offer differing views about the philosophers, while at the same time putting their views into terms that are easily understandable to the average graduate student. A thorough knowledge of the philosophy is not necessary to the student; however, a basic understanding of the history of the philosophy of the mind is imperative to comprehend the current debate, especially as it relates to AI and computer use in the library. Thus, I have attempted to ease the burden by offering comprehensible works and pointing out key elments in the works herein cited. My primary method of establishing authority was to note who was citing whom, and to determine which research was jumping off of other research. One of the most powerful tools I discovered for doing this was the Social Sciences Citation Index. Once I had a grasp of the leading names of modern theorists and a few articles that seemed promising, I looked to the Citation Index to see who had been cited by those I had determined to be the leaders in the fields, and who those leaders were themselves citing. I have come up with what I see as a web of modern theorists who are influencing the future of the philosophy of mind as it relates to AI. I also relied on the respectability of journals in which I found articles, biographical sketches of the various authors, and upon the suggestions and direction of Hasker Davis. Prior to this exercise, I had never used abstract and indexes, and had a very difficult time with these sources. I learned to use Ulrich's Directory to Periodicals, but found this to be a rather cumbersome method of research. Much of my searching was conducted through First Search Basic, using mostly WorldCat and Article1st, although I did search other databases in the system. I did not wish to use only sources found in my own library (University of Colorado at Colorado Springs), so I ordered about half of my cited sources through Interlibrary Loan, as I wished to look at my sources instead of relying solely on reviews or abstracts. There are, however, a few entries in this bibliography that I was not able to obtain copies of but felt needed inclusion; these are noted in the annotations. I preferred using online abstracts, but found that these are often insubstantial, at least to my particular topic. I was also surprised to find that two of the abstracts I located were essentially plagiarisms of the authors' own summaries. While I did use abstracts, I found I was more comfortable at least scanning my sources. The online abstract services I used were PsychLit, INSPEC, and other databases found on First Search Deluxe. I also feel it is necessary to address the issue of frustration in my research. Even though I work in a library and am familiar with certain search techniques, I still became very frustrated at the beginning of my research. I expected a certain level of anxiety due to unfamiliarity with the subject, but I encountered the most frustration with the research itself. I had to master a variety of library tools with which I was unfamiliar and which did not lend themselves to ready use. The most interesting thing that came out of this experience was learning first-hand that a librarian is not just a librarian, but each has his or her own strengths. One helped me with the technology, one helped me master the tools, and one was exceptionally skilled at drawing out of me the questions I really had about what I was doing. While all of these are valuable strengths, I could not help but recall Kuhlman's theory about anxiety in research. The librarian who helped me determine what exactly it was that I wanted went the greatest distance in helping me with this project. This bibliography will give the student a thorough understanding of the mind/body dichotomy and how it relates to library applications. There is no clear ending to this topic as the research is progressing at a furious pace, so I have organized these sources into chronological order. I begin with the earliest philosophers of the mind, then move into modern theory. The bibliography takes a turn with the Turing entry, though. Turing represents the beginning of computer theory, and the bibliography likewise turns to computing theories. It begins to focus on the philosophy of mind as it relates to computing theory, with an emphasis on its use in the information professions. Each annotation includes a brief summary of the major points of the work cited, and why I have chosen it for the bibliography. I have used the Modern Language Association format for citation, both for the main entry and for the occasional citation within the annotations. Rather than include every review I was able to locate for books, I have only coded pertinent entries to indicate that such reviews exist. Following each main entry, I have noted where to find directions to reviews by placing the intitials BRI if it is listed in Book Review Index, and BRD if it is listed in Book Review Digest. I have also noted in which year these reviews are listed. I have chosen this method because some of these books have ten or more reviews and I did not wish to clutter up the bibliography; however, citations are included for the student who wishes to locate them. Throughout this bibliography, the initials AI are used to indicate artificial intelligence. Wilkinson, Ross, and Philip Hingston. "Artificial Intelligence, Knowledge Systems, and the Future Library: A Special Issue of Library Hi-Tech." Library Hi-Tech (Issue 37-38) 10.1-2 (1992). This article is listed first because it provides a good overview of the structure of this bibliography. It introduces the concept of AI and the philsophical foundations underlying it. The article also offers a brief history of computing and addresses the impact of computing on various library operations. I recommend that this brief article, which contains its own excellent bibliography of pertinent articles and current research, be read before proceeding with the remainder of this bibliography to gain an understanding of the overall intent. This issue of Library Hi-Tech is cited several times in this bibliography. Vietch, L. L. D., John. The Method, Meditations, and Philosophy of Descartes. Washington & London: M. Walter Dunne, 1901. There are many versions of Descartes' work available; I chose this one for a number of reasons. First, it contains all of Descartes' major works in one volume. Second, it is translated directly from the original by the author. Third, although this is not a scientific method, the due date slip indicated that it is checked out far more frequently than other versions, suggesting that it is a popular version. Descartes is listed at the beginning of the philosophy section because the mind/body dichotomy debate essentially began with him and subsequent philosophers and theorists on the topic refer to him as the father of the philosophy of consciousness. Descartes offered his proofs that the mind's existence must be possible independent of the body and began the debate over whether consciousness is inseparable from the body, a debate that remains central to the mind/body dichotomy in AI theory today. Descartes was also the first to base philosophy on consciousness -- cogito ergo sum. This volume begins with a good introduction to the philosophy of Descartes and includes the thoughts of Malebranche and Spinoza, two influential Cartesian thinkers who attempted, through what is called Hegelian criticism, to "correct and elucidate" Descartes. The introduction, though lengthy, can be read alone to gain a basic understanding of Descartes' theories and the criticisms against them. In Descartes' own writings, read especially the First Meditation (the grounds upon which we may doubt all, especially material things), the Second Meditation (the mind exists itself), and the Sixth Meditation (the mind is distinct from the body; the act of understanding is distinguished from imagination). Descartes belief that there will "ultimately be found a mechanical equivalent to each state of consciousness," and the question "what is the mechanical equivalent if knowledge is entirely restricted to states of consiousness?" are still at the center of the debate over AI and an understanding of his philosophy is necessary to the student studying the philosophy of the mind in relation to AI. Balz, Albert A. Descartes and the Modern Mind. 1952. Hamden: Archon Books, 1967. (BRD 1952) This book is included because the author is a respected Cartesian scholar who has written about the influence Descartes has had on modern man. Dense reading, but helpful for those who wish to know more about why Western people think the way they do about their consciousness. For the purposes of this bibliography, only chapters 5, 9, 10, 19, and 21 are relevant, dealing as they do with knowledge as it pertains to the mind/body dichotomy. Sorell, Tom, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge Companions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Hobbes is primarily known as a political philosopher, but many of the works reviewed for this bibliography contained references to him so his work was also investigated. Hobbes, in addition to political philosophy, was concerned with many other ideas, such as mathematics and physics. He refuted the ideas of Descartes. Read chapter two, which presents an overview of Hobbes' scheme of the sciences, and chapters three and four, which explain Hobbes' objections to Descartes and show his own ideas about knowledge in relation to the mind. Each essay is well-documented and there is an extensive bibliography following the text. Includes biographical sketches of each contributor and a name and subject index. Chappell, Vere, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge Companions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. (BRI 1995) Locke is well-known as a philosopher in many areas, including human understanding and the mind/body dichotomy. It is necessary to read only the chapters cited. Chapter one, which is a short "life and times" of Locke. Chapter two, explaining Locke's theory of "ideas" and how all human knowledge is founded from them; how ideas form thinking. Chapter three, explaining Locke's philosophy of body. Paradoxically, he accepted Descartes distinction between the world's mental and physical aspects. Chapter four, about Locke's philosophy of mind. While accepting Descartes dualism, Locke believed that mentality and physicality could be present in the same thing. Chapter six, about Locke's theory of knowledge. Locke believed that some was gained by experience, the capacity to learn being given by God, and some was innate, given directly by God. Also read chapter ten, addressing Locke's influence. Locke is often contradictory and can be difficult to understand. This chapter is recommended because it helps explain Locke's ideas and how he has influenced Western thought. His paradoxical ideas about the mind/body dichotomy are very influential on modern computing theories and the student should attempt to understand them. Includes bibliography, biographical sketches of each contributor, and a name and subject index. Yolton, John W. The Locke Reader. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. (BRD 1978) This volume is included because, as Locke is difficult to understand, the student may wish to go directly to the source for clarification. It contains the most commonly used parts of Locke's writings. While almost all sections apply to this bibliography, those that are most relevant are found in the Essay Concerning Human Knowledge. Also helpful are the following sections in Part II, The Doctrine of Signs: The Origin of Ideas, Experience as the Source, and Physiology. In Part III, The Science of Action, Action and the Person may be useful. Norton, David Fate, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Hume. Cambridge Companions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. (BRI 1995) As with Hobbes, I discovered many references to Hume in my research on this topic and so pursued them, Hume also refutes Cartesian ideas. He deals primarily with thought and the relations between or among objects of the "material world." The introduction contains a biography of Hume and the context of his philosophy. Read chapter one, an introduction to Hume's philosophy, and chapter two, an essay focusing on his philosophy of the mind, (which he considers a science), how it reasons and gains knowledge, and the existence of the body and how it influences the mind. Also contains two short biographies following the essays, a bibliography, and a name and subject index. Ryle, Gilbert. The Concept of Mind. 1949. London: Hutchinson & Co., 1963. Ryle is one of the leading mind philosophers of the twentieth century, presenting an anti-Cartesian theory. He makes a distinction between the physical being as public and the mental being as private. There are minds and there are bodies, but they are inseparable; one cannot exist without the other. Emphasizes that there is a difference between knowing how and knowing that, or that we are unaware of how we acquire and use some of our knowlege. Argues that our minds are not "ghosts in the machine" (bodies), but can be described materially. We can understand other minds because our actions betray its workings. However, Ryle also believes that our minds cannot be reduced to purely mechanical operating systems. Oddly, though, Ryle's argument that the mind is not separate from the body but is completely observable lends credence to researchers who claim that machines can be built and programmed to "think" in a manner similar to the human mind. At one point Ryle discusses pretending, a capability which humans have and which can probably never be replicated in a machine. He makes a very strong argument that intellect requires gaining knowledge and that recitation by rote memory (which is "thinking" in computers) is not an exercise of the intellect. Through his argument that the mind is inseparable from the body, Ryle raises important issues both supporting and refuting the possibility of achieving a true AI. Ryle writes clearly and this book is not difficult to read. Contains name and subject index. Wisdom, John. Other Minds. 1952. Oxford: Blackwell, 1965. (BRI 1965-84 Cumulation) John Wisdom is a respected scholar in the philosophy of the mind, frequently cited by modern theorists. While this book, a series of essays, is not directly "about" the mind/body dichotomy, it is included because it directly addresses the problem of "other minds." Can we know how other minds operate or can we only "know" our own minds? This book is set up in a clever and fascinating manner. Essays two through eight are presented as a debate represented by colors, primarily black and white, with occasional contributions by grey and brown, thus removing the presence of the author and allowing the debate to be presented from a variety of veiwpoints. More than a nodding acquaintance with philosophy of the mind is necessary to fully appreciate this book; nevertheless, it is highly recommended, not only for it's unique format but also because it deals with a very central issue to the future of AI: is it possible to understand the operation of a mind other than one's own? The answer, if it is ever determined, will affect whether or not true AI is ever achieved. This book is not indexed. It is, however, heavily footnoted, which can be very distracting, but the book can be safely read without looking at the footnotes, which can be returned to at a later time if desired. O'Connor, John, ed. Modern Materialism: Readings on Mind-Body Identity. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1969. This book is included because it represents the beginning of the "new wave" of thinking about the mind/body problem in Western thought following the advent of computing. The mind/body problem, as is evident from this bibliography, is a centuries-old question; however, since Turing's Machine (listed later in this bibliography) was developed in the 1950's, the question as it applies to AI has gained new fervor. The authors Feyeraband, Place, Nagel, Quine, Sellars, Rorty, and Putnam, all of whom are cited by today's leading theorists, are represented in this collection of essays. Highly recommended for the variety of viewpoints presented in one volume. Each essay is footnoted, and a comprehennsive bibliography follows the texts. Margolis, Joseph. Knowledge and Existence: An Introduction to Philosophical Problems. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. (BRI 1965-84 Cumulation, BRD 1973) Although the subtitle of this book is misleading, for it is in no way an introductory text, it is included because Margolis is a respected scholar who has contributed much to the mind/body debate and is frequently cited by modern theorists in this and related fields. The book is a series of essays which deal with the philosophy of knowledge and existence, but chapters seven and eight, addressing language and mind/body respectively, are most pertinent to this bibliography. Margolis agrees with Chomsky that language is a barrier to AI, in that it favors incomplete utterances and implicit messages, which is incompatible with natural language processing in computing. He offers considerations from both sides of the mind/body problem, stating that all theories have something to add to the debate but that none are complete enough to fully explain the mind. While not seeing AI as an impossible task, he asserts that more understanding of the mind/body problem is needed before it can be achieved. This book is also recommended because the essays can be read independently of one another; it is not necessary to read the book from cover to cover; rather, it can be read for areas of particular interest. Includes name and subject index. Nagel, Thomas. "What is it Like to be a Bat?" Philosophical Review 83 (1974): 435-450. Nagel's article is one of the most cited articles in the mind/body literature (one subdivision in Dennett's Consciousness Explained is titled, "What it is Like to be a Bat" -- italics added). In it he argues that reductionism is insufficient to understand the relation between mind and body and that the difficulty lies with consciousness. In order to "know" what it is like to be a bat, or even form a conception of it, one must be a bat, or have experience from the subjective point-of-view of the bat. Nagel argues that mental processes cannot be observed from another point-of-view, but only directly by the organism owning that particular mind, and asserts that a physical theory of mind cannot be comtemplated until we have a more thorough grasp of objective and subjective experience. He closes the paper with an exhortation to philosophers and scientists pursue that goal. This article is important to read because of the impact it has had on the mind/body problem since it was published. Matson, Wallace I. Sentience. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. (BRI 1965-84 Cumulation, BRD 1976) Matson is another respected contributor to the mind/body debate. He asserts that sensations are necessarily brain processes and that the mind and body are inseparable. In this book he addresses the question of public (physical) versus private (mental) processes, concluding that, between humans, nothing is truly private; since we share the same structures, what is observable to one is observable, though perhaps in different manners, to all. He argues that sentience involves a capacity to "size up" a situation, to note special features, to see the whole and to make decisions. Although he concedes that he cannot prove it, he makes a reasonable argument against the possibility of a sentient machine. Footnoted throughout. Includes a name and subject index. Levin, Michael E. Metaphysics and the Mind/Body Problem. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979. (BRI 1965-84 Cumulation, BRD 1980) Levin is a frequently cited philosopher of the mind by researchers in AI. In this book he attempts to explain that all conscious sensations, intentional attitudes, 'private' mental states, and will are physically explainable. His arguments are strong, but this is a difficult read. While all is important to the mind/body problem, I recommend reading thoroughly only chapter six -- Computers, or is there Intelligent Life on Earth? He addresses several arguments against AI, including those based on language postulated by Chomsky (listed in this bibliography). Levin's refutations are strong and well-reasoned, and he concludes that not only can AI be achieved, but that cognitive simulation (sentient computers) can be achieved, if we are willing to open our minds to new and different ways of perceiving computers. It is a very intriguing chapter. Text is footnoted, and there are individual name and subject indexes. Fodor, Jerry A. Representations: Philosophical Essays on the Foundations of Cognitive Science. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1981. (BRI 1965-84 Cumulation) A leading modern philosopher in the mind/body problem, Fodor is frequently cited by his contemporaries. The introduction to this book identifies various lenses through which to look at the theory of cognitive science, such as dualism, monism, physicalism, functionalism, etc., and discusses why these are important to computing, starting with the Turing Machine. Following is a series of ten essays dealing with these ways of looking at cognitive science, explaining the pros and cons of each. Each essay gives a nod to its relevance to computing, but chapters 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8 relate directly to computation and AI. Fodor is an excellent writer with a clear style which is occasionally injected with dry humor. It is easily understood by the layperson and is recommended for it's easy clarification of the theories behind cognitive science. The book ends with an extensive series of notes on the text, references, and a name index. Fodor, Jerry A. The Modularity of Mind. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983. (BRI 1965-84 Cumulation, BRD 1984) This lengthy essay is a discussion of "faculty psychology," or "the view that many fundamentally different kinds of psychological mechanisms must be postulated in order of explain the facts of mental life"(1). Faculty psychology asserts that our minds are a set of distinct psychological mechanisms, each of which can be studied individually. If this proves to be true, then the possibilities of developing true AI become more real. Fodor addresses computers specifically, but emphasizes that "they generally interface with their environments via some human being"(41) in an attempt to explain faculty psychology through the lens of computing, using specifically the terms "input systems" and "central processing." It is interesting to explain the mind in terms of computers when the AI researchers are attempting to create the opposite -- a computer built on a model of the mind. Extensive notes follow the essay, along with a reference list, but there is no index. Throughout this essay, Fodor repeatedly asserts that he does not claim to have answers to all of these questions; however, his questions deserve further research. Peck, James, ed. The Chomsky Reader. New York: Pantheon, 1987. (BRD 1988) Although Chomsky is known for his political philosophy, he is frequently cited for his contributions to the theory of knowledge and must be included in this bibliography. Read Language and Freedom (145-155), in which Chomsky argues that the use of language is a criterion for determining that another being has a mind. This has proven to be a major point in the development of AI and expert systems, hence the recent push for the development of "natural language processing." Also read Equality, addressing the questions, what is human nature, and what makes humans unique? He again discusses language, and also consciousness and our brains. The book includes extensive notes on the essays and a name and subject index. Churchland, Paul M. Matter and Consciousness: A Contemporary Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind. 1984. New material. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988. (BRI 1985-92 Cumulation) Churchland is one of the most prominent and respected philosophers in the fields of neuroscience and cognitive science today. If no other item in this bibliography were read, this one would provide an excellent introduction to the current debate over the mind/body problem and it's application to AI. Churchland provides an overview of the various theories, arguing the pros and cons of each. He addresses the issues of language, other minds, knowledge, intelligence, etc., and discusses how these problems should be approached, offering a variety of possibilities. Chapter six on AI should be read especially closely, in which he offers an excellent discussion of the topic. He questions whether AI can be achieved, gives a good explanation of what a computer is and does, and addresses the various diffficulties facing AI researchers. He presents some existing programs, stating where we are in current research and where we are going. Computers can perform only one task at a time (serial processing), which limits AI, but current research is pursuing the possibility of a computer performing many tasks simultaneously (parallel distributed processing), which is discussed at length in chapter seven, along with a brief history of neuroanatomy. It is in chapter seven that Churchland asserts his belief that AI can only be achieved with an embodied computer, one with some sort of proprioception. Churchland is an excellent writer and his enthusiasm for his work is apparent. This book is easily understood and raises many exciting possibilities. Highly recommended. Each chapter concludes with a list of recommended readings, and there is a name and subject index. Gardner, Howard. The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution. New York: Basic Books, 1985. (BRI 1985-92 Cumulation, BRD 1986) Although Gardner is best known for his work in cognitive psychology and most recently, his theory of multiple intelligences, this bibliography would be incomplete without his inclusion. In this book, Gardner presents the history of cognitive philosophy, beginning with the earliest Greek thought. In chapter six he specifically addresses AI, discussing at length it's history since the 1950's. He also discusses the famous "Chinese Room" (Minds, Brains, and Programs) of John Searle, which itself generated an amazing amount of debate over the possibility of AI. Searle argued that even if he were to learn to manipulate Chinese symbols in a manner that would seem to an external observer that he was writing in Chinese, he would still not understand it; thus, a computer which manipulates symbols cannot be said to understand or to be "intelligent." Gardner uses this famous piece as a springboard for presentation of the debate surrounding AI. He believes that computers and human minds are remarkably similar, but emphasizes the role of AI as a way to help illuminate and explain the age-old questions of cognitive psychology. This book is broken down into parts, chapters, and subchapters, so it is easy to read in bits and pieces, enabling a reader to focus on areas of particular interest. Includes reference list, and separate name and subject indexes. Dreyfus, Hubert L. Mind Over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer. New York: Free Press, 1986. (BRI 1985-92 Cumulation) I was unable to obtain a copy of this book; however, based on my research, I believe it belongs in this bibliography. Reviews state that Dreyfus is an archcritic of AI, who in this book discusses the nature of human intuition and perception, and argues that these are uniquely human attributes which can never be reproduced in a machine. Dreyfus is a respected contributor to the field, and I suggest pursuing this book. Penrose, Roger, The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, and the Laws of Physics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. (BRI 1985-92 Cumulation, BRD 1990) Roger Penrose is one of the world's leading authorities in mathematical physics and contributes greatly to the philosophy of mind based on his knowledge. Although directed at the layperson, this book can be very difficult to read because of the technical arguments and mathematical formulae it often employs. However, Penrose himself suggests at the beginning that though he would like the reader to give them at least a cursory glance, if they are too overwhelming they can be safely ignored. Penrose is a very strong opponent of AI and attempts to prove that quantum physics eventually reaches a void in which certain things cannot be known. He argues that something deeper is necessary to understand the workings of the human mind and that there are facets of the mind that can never be replicated by a computer. He supports Einstein's statement that his "little finger" told him that quantum physics was incomplete, and his own little finger "tells him that the human mind is more than just a collection of tiny wires and switches"(vii). The title of the book is a play on the children's story, "The Emporer's New Clothes," with Penrose asserting that the proponents of AI are, like the emperor in the story, wearing no clothes. As already stated, this book is a challenging read; however, it is necessary for an understanding of the current mind/body debate, especially as it applies to the future of AI. Includes a reference list and a name and subject index. Dennett, Daniel C. Consciousness Explained. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1991. (BRI 1985-92 Cumulation, BRD 1992) Dennett is another of today's leading philosophers of the mind, respected, if not always agreed with by his peers. Dennett is strongly in favor of AI, but has great respect for colleagues, like Penrose, who take opposing views. He takes great delight in proposing new views, even if they ultimately prove to be wrong, in hopes that they will lead to future research and clarification of the issues. Dennett is a prolific and easy- to-read author. Two prior books, Content and Consciousness (1969) and Brainstorms (1981), also deal with the mind/body problem but are not listed in this bibliography because Consciousness Explained represents the most recent refinements of his theories and is specifically aimed at AI. He discusses clearly and thoroughly the problems facing AI, such as language and brain structure, believing that Cartesianism must be abandoned because the brain is a "computerlike machine, hard-wired in some areas and programmable in others"(book jacket). Dennett is a clear and masterful writer whose arguments are readily understood even by the novice in philosophy or psychology. He provides necessary reading to grasp the current mind/body debate. This book includes separate appendixes addressed to sceintists and philosophers, containing more technical arguments, an extensive bibliography, and a name and subject index. Sperry, Roger W. "The Riddle of Consciousness and the Changing Scientific Worldview." Journal of Humanistic Psychology 35.2 (1995): 7-33. Sperry is another of the world's foremost brain researchers and philosophers. In this article he asserts that there has recently been a fundamental change in the philosophy of mind but that there is a lack of consensus about what precisely that change has been or where it is going. He argues for adherence to cognitivism with its affirmation of subjective causality (see Nagel), and asserts that such affirmation verifies that existence is impossible separate from the brain since mental states are emergent properties of brain processes. He provides an excellent synopsis of the changes in the philosophy of mind and cognitive science during the past twenty years. Includes an extensive bibliography. Sperry, Roger, W. "The Impact and Promise of the Cognitive Revolution." American Psychologist 48 (1993): 878-885. This article is included because it is a briefer version of Sperry's 1995 article. It is an edited version of an address presented at the 99th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, San Fransisco, August 1991. All of Sperry's salient points are addressed, and it is to this article that the following rebuttals are addressed. Hergenhahn, B. R.. "Psychology's Cognitive Revolution"; Morf, Martin E. "Sperry's Leap"; Sampson, Edward E. "Sperry's Cognitive Revolution"; Holdstock, T. Len. "Is the Cognitive Revolution All it is Made Out to Be?" American Psychologist 49 (1994): 816-820. These are included because they are rebuttals to Sperry's "Impact and Promise of the Cognitive Revolution." They raise questions left unanswered by Sperry and suggest possible future issues in the mind/body problem. They should be read to gain an understanding of the most current questions in the area, and to learn what the newest thinkers are contemplating. Turing, Alan M. "Computing Machinery and Intelligence." Mind 59 (1950): 433-461. This article is included because it marks a turning point in the history of computing and is cited in virtually every important work addressing the mind/body problem as it relates to AI. Turing is generally considered the pioneer computer theorist and proposed the possibility that computers could think as early as the 1930's. He demonstrated that a binary code would make it possible to devise and execute an indefinite number of programs and that machines operating on this principle could be built. This article suggests that it is possible to so program a machine that it would be impossible to discriminate its answers from those of a living human being -- a test now famously known as the "Turing Machine Test." If an observer cannot tell the difference between the responses of the machine and a human being, then the machine has passed the Turing test. The Turing test is still used as a basis for testing such machines. This article is absolutely necessary to understand the beginnings of AI and is one of the key articles in this bibliography. Hooker, Cliff, and Bruce Penfield. "Artificial versus Natural Intelligence: What Role for the Brain?" Search 26 (1995): 281-284. Hooker is Professor of Philosophy and Penfield a specialist in electrical and computer engineering, demonstrating that differing disciplines are beginning to work together towards the advancement of AI. They state that AI as it exists now will never produce any complex "intellect," and suggest that neural nets can be a way of achieving a truer AI. They also suggest that such a move will help increase our understanding of the brain. This article is included to give the student an appreciation of the most current thoughts and issues in AI, and to encourage specualtion of the new directions possible as a result of the overlap of disciplines. Hayes-Roth, Frederick. "Knowledge Systems: An Introduction." Library Hi- Tech (Issue 37-38) 10.1-2 (1992): 15-29. This article is included because it describes the difference between expert, or knowledge systems, and conventional programs in a way that is comprehensible to the person with little understanding of how computers work. It includes several diagrams and charts to help clarify the text. A basic understanding of expert systems is necessary to comprehend its application in the library, and Hayes-Roth does a very good job of explaining them. The article is well-documented and is strongly recommended. Corbett, Dan. Sidebar: "Natural Language Processing." Library Hi-Tech (Issue 37-38) 10.1-2 (1992): 112. The problems facing natural language processing are a central issue to AI, and this short, easy-to-understand sidebar illuminates those problems. It is included for those who have no knowledge of the problem and wish to be introduced to it. Corbett makes some suggestions for overcoming the ambiguity of language, but recognizes that many problems remain. He concludes, however, that a natural language program can be very useful, with progress in the area. Sparck Jones, Karen. "The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Information Retrieval." Journal of the American Society for Information Science 42 (1991): 558-565. Sparck Jones is gaining recognition both in the fields of philosophy of mind as it relates to AI and the information sciences. She is included in this bibliography to relate the importance of AI, and thus the mind/body problem, to libraries. In this article she presents her view of the place for AI in information retrieval. She argues that AI does have a place in the library, but only a limited place. The article is pertinent to library students because of her illumination of the role of AI in libraries, which clarifies the role of the librarian. Horton Jr., Forest Woody. "Some Speculations on Knowing, Learning, and Artificial Intelligence." International Forum on Information and Documentation 20.1 (1995): 8-15. I have been unable to find authority for Horton other than that he is Vice-President of the Forum on Information and Documentation, but this position indicates a reasonable amount of knowledge and experience which can be useful to this topic. He states that this article is meant to be provocative, which it is, in the hopes that researchers will pursue some of his speculations. He asserts that the library and information community should be brought into the dialogue about AI, a logical request since libraries are where much AI is being applied. Recommend reading this article in the hopes that library students will become more attentive to and perhaps more involved in the dialogue, making their own contributions to the debate in the future. Su, Shiao-Feng, and F.W. Lancaster. "Evaluation of Expert Systems in Reference Service Applications." RQ 35 (1995): 219-228. This article describes an assessment of the effectiveness of two expert systems, Source Finder and Reference Expert, reference sources as measured against standards set by skilled reference librarians. The study is well-documented, the conclusion being that these expert systems are less "expert" than skilled reference librarians. The conclusion is less important than the questions it raises: if expert systems are less reliable than skilled librarians, then how can they be improved? Recommend reading this article for its look at the practical use of AI in libraries and its demonstration of how information specialists can contribute to the field. Roszak, Theodore. The Cult of Information: A Neo-Luddite Treatise on High-Tech, Artificial Intelligence, and the True Art of Thinking. 2nd Ed. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. (BRI 1995) I discovered this book late in the process of researching this bibliography and was unable to obtain a copy before completion; however, I did find a review by Pamela Cobb (Journal of the American Society for Information Science 47 (1996): 251-2) that was intriguing enough to include this book. She states that Roszak asserts that humanity will fall victim to the evils of technology, providing the worst examples of the abuses of technology he could find. The most interesting point she raises is that Roszak specifically addresses libraries, idealizing them, and is a supporter of the "use of electonic apparatus in this environment." He sees librarians as protectors, guides, and guardians for the unsuspecting public -- an interesting idea for the role of the librarian! Although the book is a lambaste against technology, Cobb asserts that we should take heed of his warnings. This book may be worth looking into for that reason. Thinking Allowed Productions. Videocassette. Does Mind Matter? With U. G. Krishnamurti, Julian Isaacs, John R. Searle, Ole Nydahl, Arthur Blocke and Jeffrey Mishlove. Thinking Allowed, Q294, 1988. Though I allowed five weeks for delivery of this videocassette, I was unable to obtain a copy through Interlibrary Loan. I am including it for those students who prefer an audiovisual style of learning. It is included primarily for the discussion by Searle (of the Chinese Room -- see Gardner), but biographical sketches of the other contributors suggest that they may also be of interest. Thinking Allowed Productions. Videocassette. Does Mind Matter? With Theodore Roszak, Howard Rheingold, Hubert Dreyfus and William Whitson. Thinking Allowed, 1987. Like the previous entry, I was unable to obtain a copy of this videocassette, but am including it for the audiovisual learner. Roszak and Dreyfus are listed elsewhere in this bibliography, but the other contributors may also be interesting. Penrose, Roger. Videocassette. Shadows of the Mind: Consciousness, Computation. and the New Physics of the Mind. NIST colloquium series. 1986. I came across this videocassette very late in my research and have no other information about how to obtain it than that listed in the entry; however, I am including it because the audiovisual learner who is very interested should be able to locate it. Penrose (listed elsewhere in this bibliography) discusses his theories of the mind and how they relate to AI. Lancaster, F. W., and Linda Smith, eds. Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems: Will They Change the Library? Clinic on Library Applications of Data Processing. Urbana-Champaign, 1990: Graduate School of Library and Information Science, 1992. (BRI 1993) This bibliography closes with this book because it looks at how AI and expert systems are being applied in libraries, by people who actually use them. It is intended to "tie-up" the seemingly evasive relationship that exists between the mind/body dichotomy and library and information science, for the applications that library and information specialists use in their daily work do have their roots in the debate begun with the specualtions of Descartes. The book is a series of papers by librarians, psychologists, and computer engineers, all involved in some way in the information fields. Their papers address AI and expert systems as applied in various library operations, such as reference, cataloging, natural language usage, etc. It is one of the key works in this bibliography because it shows clearly the connection between philosophy of mind and libraries. It represents the latest experiences and questions raised by information professionals about the applications of AI, which will have an impact on future research. Each article has a reference list, and there are summary biographies of each contributor at the end of the book.